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living theater

  • 1 living theater

    живет театр имя существительное:

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > living theater

  • 2 ‘Living Theater, The’

    «Живой театр», один из наиболее известных нью-йоркских экспериментальных театров. Основан в 1946, оказал большое влияние на театральное искусство в США и за рубежом в 1960—70-х гг. Особое внимание уделялось участию зрителей в спектаклях

    США. Лингвострановедческий англо-русский словарь > ‘Living Theater, The’

  • 3 theater

    театр имя существительное:
    пьесы (theater, theatre)
    поле действий (theater, theatre)

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > theater

  • 4 theatre

    театр имя существительное:
    пьесы (theater, theatre)
    поле действий (theater, theatre)

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > theatre

  • 5 house

    дом имя существительное:
    зрители (audience, house)
    глагол:

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > house

  • 6 playhouse

    театр имя существительное:

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > playhouse

  • 7 stage

    этап имя существительное:
    стадия (stage, phase, stadium, remove)
    фаза (phase, stage, leg, gradation)
    платформа (platform, stage, halt, lorry)
    имя прилагательное:
    ступенчатый (stage, stair-step)
    глагол:

    Англо-русский синонимический словарь > stage

  • 8 off-off-Broadway

    вне-внебродвейский ( об экспериментальных авангардистских театрах Нью-Йорка). Для вне-внебродвейских театров характерен отказ от психологизма, возрождение народного кукольного театра, театра масок, использование приёмов «театра жестокости», стремление включить театр в общественную жизнь. Некоторые вне-внебродвейские театры были связаны с движением «новых левых» [New Left]. Ведущие вне-внебродвейские театры: «Ливинг тиэтр» [*‘Living Theater’], «Хлеб и куклы» [‘Bread and Dolls’], «Перфоманс груп» [‘Performance Group’]

    США. Лингвострановедческий англо-русский словарь > off-off-Broadway

  • 9 sala

    Del verbo salar: ( conjugate salar) \ \
    sala es: \ \
    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) presente indicativo
    2ª persona singular (tú) imperativo
    Multiple Entries: sala     salar
    sala sustantivo femenino
    a) ( de casa) tb
    ( en hospital) ward; (para reuniones, conferencias) hall; (Teatr) theater( conjugate theater); (Cin) movie theater (AmE), cinema (BrE); sala de clases (CS frml) classroom; sala de conciertos concert hall; sala de embarque departure lounge; sala de espera waiting room; sala de exposiciones gallery, exhibition hall; sala de fiestas night club ( usually featuring dancing and cabaret); sala de profesores staff room
    salar 1 ( conjugate salar) verbo transitivo
    a) ( para conservar) ‹carne/pescado› to salt (down);
    ‹ pieles› to salt salarse verbo pronominal (Méx fam) ( echarse a perder) [ planes] to fall through; [ negocio] to go bust
    salar 2 sustantivo masculino (Chi) salt pan, salt flat
    sala sustantivo femenino
    1 (para un uso concreto) room
    sala de espera, waiting room
    sala de máquinas,
    2 (en una casa) sala o salita de estar, lounge, living room
    3 (de un hospital) ward
    4 sala de justicia, courtroom
    5 (para espectáculos, actos públicos, etc) sala de conferencias, conference o lecture hall
    6 (de cine, teatro, música) auditorium
    7 un cine con seis salas, a six-screen cinema 8 sala de exposiciones, exhibition hall, gallery
    9 sala de fiestas, night club
    10 familiar (cine especializado en películas pornográficas) sala X, cinema showing X-rated films
    11 fig (público presente en un espectáculo) la sala le homenajeó con media hora de aplausos, they paid tribute to him with an ovation that lasted for half an hour
    12 fig (conjunto de magistrados de un tribunal de justicia) la sala dictó la sentencia y le condenó, the court passed sentence and condemned him
    salar
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (echar sal a una comida) to add salt to
    2 (poner en salazón) to salt
    3 LAm fam (estropear, desgraciar) to spoil, ruin
    4 LAm (dar o causar mala suerte) to bring bad luck to
    II m (salina, terreno estéril) ' sala' also found in these entries: Spanish: acondicionar - auditorio - bisbiseo - discoteca - estudio - rebosar - recorrer - refrigerar - reunir - abarrotar - bingo - comedor - cupo - enfermería - fondo - fútbol - maternidad - ocupar - repleto - velatorio English: bar - boardroom - concert hall - courtroom - departure lounge - fill - five-a-side - hall - house - lecture hall - lecture theatre - living room - lounge - lounge bar - maternity ward - newsroom - pool hall - reading room - saleroom - seat - showroom - sitting-room - staffroom - surgical - transfer lounge - transit lounge - waiting room - ward - amusement - ball - board - concert - conference - control - court - day - departure - drawing - facility - live - operating - parlor - reading - room - sales - sitting - waiting

    English-spanish dictionary > sala

  • 10 fun

    1. noun
    Spaß, der

    have fun doing something — Spaß daran haben, etwas zu tun

    make fun of or poke fun at somebody/something — sich über jemanden/etwas lustig machen

    in fun — im Spaß

    for fun, for the fun of it — zum Spaß

    spoil the or somebody's fun — jemandem den Spaß verderben

    something is [good or great/no] fun — etwas macht [großen/keinen] Spaß

    it's no fun being unemployed — es ist kein Vergnügen, arbeitslos zu sein

    we had the usual fun and games with him — (iron.): (trouble) wir hatten wieder das übliche Theater mit ihm (ugs.)

    2. adjective
    (coll.) lustig; amüsant
    * * *
    (enjoyment; a good time: They had a lot of fun at the party; Isn't this fun!) der Spaß
    - academic.ru/29917/funny">funny
    - funnily
    - fun and games
    - for fun
    - in fun
    - make fun of
    * * *
    [fʌn]
    I. n no pl Spaß m, SCHWEIZ a. Vergnügen nt
    it was good \fun es hat viel Spaß gemacht; (funny) es war sehr lustig [o witzig]
    it's no \fun having to work on Saturdays es ist nicht lustig, samstags arbeiten zu müssen
    that sounds like \fun das klingt gut
    to be full of \fun (be active) immer unternehmungslustig sein; (be mischievous) nur Dummheiten im Kopf haben
    to do sth for \fun [or the \fun of it] [or the \fun of the thing] etw nur [so] zum Spaß [o spaßeshalber] [o fam aus Jux und Tollerei] machen
    to do sth in \fun etw im [o zum] Spaß tun
    I didn't mean what I said, it was only in \fun ich hab's nicht so gemeint, das war doch nur Spaß
    to get a lot of \fun out of [or from] sth viel Spaß an etw dat haben
    children get a lot of \fun out of playing with water Kindern macht es großen Spaß, mit Wasser zu spielen
    to have [a lot of] \fun [viel] Spaß haben, sich akk [gut [o köstlich]] amüsieren
    have \fun! viel Spaß!
    have \fun on your vacation! schöne Ferien!
    to have \fun at sb's expense sich akk auf jds Kosten amüsieren
    to make \fun of [or poke \fun at] sb sich akk über jdn lustig machen
    to put the \fun back into sth etw [doch noch] retten
    to spoil sb's/the \fun [of sth] jdm den/den Spaß [an etw dat] verderben
    to take the \fun out of sth etw verderben
    Rolf broke his leg when we went skiing and that took all the \fun out of it als wir im Skiurlaub waren, hat sich Rolf das Bein gebrochen, das hat uns den ganzen Spaß verdorben
    like \fun! ( fam) Pustekuchen! fam
    what \fun! super! fam
    ▶ \fun and games das reine Vergnügen
    ▶ it's not all \fun and games being/doing sth (not easy) es ist nicht immer einfach, etw zu sein/zu tun; (not fun) es ist nicht immer lustig, etw zu sein/zu tun
    ▶ \fun is \fun and work is work ( prov) erst die Arbeit, dann das Vergnügen
    II. adj attr ( fam)
    1. (enjoyable) activity lustig
    sth is a \fun thing to do etw macht Spaß
    going camping would be a real \fun thing to do ich hätte schrecklich Lust, campen zu gehen fam
    2. (entertaining) person lustig, witzig
    she's a real \fun person ( fam) sie ist echt witzig fam
    * * *
    [fʌn]
    1. n
    (= amusement) Spaß m, (Aus also) Spass m

    to have great fun doing sth — viel Spaß daran haben, etw zu tun, viel Spaß an etw (dat) haben

    we just did it for fun — wir haben das nur aus or zum Spaß gemacht

    it's fun doing this/being with him — es macht Spaß, das zu tun/mit ihm zusammen zu sein

    it's not much fun for the others though —

    it's no fun living on your own/being broke — es macht nicht gerade Spaß, allein zu leben/pleite (inf) zu sein

    you're no fun to be with any more — es macht keinen Spaß mehr, mit dir zusammen zu sein

    he is great fun — man kriegt mit ihm viel Spaß or viel zu lachen (inf)

    I wasn't serious, I was just having a bit of fun —

    to make fun of or poke fun at sb/sth — sich über jdn/etw lustig machen

    we had fun getting the car started (inf) — wir hatten ein bisschen Theater, ehe das Auto ansprang (inf)

    like fun ( US inf ) — (ja,) Pustekuchen! (inf)

    2. adj attr (inf)

    he's a real fun person — er ist wirklich ein lustiger Kerl

    * * *
    fun [fʌn]
    A s Spaß m:
    for fun, for the fun of it aus oder zum Spaß, spaßeshalber, zum Vergnügen;
    in fun im oder zum Scherz;
    like fun! US umg von wegen!;
    it is fun (doing sth) es macht Spaß(, etwas zu tun);
    it is no fun ( oder there is no fun in) doing sth es macht keinen Spaß, etwas zu tun;
    it (he) is great fun es (er) ist sehr amüsant oder lustig;
    there is no fun like … es geht nichts über … (akk);
    have some fun sich amüsieren;
    have fun viel Spaß oder Vergnügen!;
    have one’s fun and games umg seinen Spaß oder sein Vergnügen haben, sich amüsieren;
    make fun of sb sich über jemanden lustig machen;
    make fun of sth auch etwas ins Lächerliche ziehen;
    this is nothing to make fun of über so etwas spottet man nicht!;
    I don’t see the fun of it ich finde das (gar) nicht komisch; → figure A 5, poke1 A 5
    B adj lustig, spaßig:
    a fun sport ein Sport, der Spaß macht;
    have a fun time sich amüsieren
    * * *
    1. noun
    Spaß, der

    have fun doing something — Spaß daran haben, etwas zu tun

    make fun of or poke fun at somebody/something — sich über jemanden/etwas lustig machen

    for fun, for the fun of it — zum Spaß

    spoil the or somebody's fun — jemandem den Spaß verderben

    something is [good or great/no] fun — etwas macht [großen/keinen] Spaß

    it's no fun being unemployed — es ist kein Vergnügen, arbeitslos zu sein

    we had the usual fun and games with him — (iron.): (trouble) wir hatten wieder das übliche Theater mit ihm (ugs.)

    2. adjective
    (coll.) lustig; amüsant
    * * *
    n.
    Freude -n f.
    Scherz -e m.
    Spaß ¨-e m.

    English-german dictionary > fun

  • 11 motion

    'məuʃən
    1. noun
    1) (the act or state of moving: the motion of the planets; He lost the power of motion.) movimiento
    2) (a single movement or gesture: He summoned the waiter with a motion of the hand.) gesto
    3) (a proposal put before a meeting: She was asked to speak against the motion in the debate.) moción

    2. verb
    (to make a movement or sign eg directing a person or telling him to do something: He motioned (to) her to come nearer.) hacer señas
    - motion picture
    - in motion
    motion n movimiento
    tr['məʊʃən]
    1 (movement) movimiento
    2 (gesture) gesto, ademán nombre masculino
    3 SMALLPOLITICS/SMALL (proposal) moción nombre femenino
    4 formal use (of bowels) evacuación nombre femenino del vientre, deposición nombre femenino
    1 hacer señas
    1 hacer señas, hacer una señal
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    in motion en movimiento
    in slow motion SMALLCINEMA/SMALL a cámara lenta
    to go through the motions (of doing something) hacer algo como es debido pero sin convicción
    to motion to somebody to do something hacer señas a alguien para que haga algo
    to put/set something in motion poner algo en movimiento
    motion picture película
    motion ['mo:ʃən] vt
    : hacerle señas (a alguien)
    she motioned us to come in: nos hizo señas para que entráramos
    1) movement: movimiento m
    to set in motion: poner en marcha
    2) proposal: moción f
    to second a motion: apoyar una moción
    n.
    • ademán s.m.
    • llamada s.f.
    • marcha s.f.
    • moción (Pro puesta) s.f.
    • movimiento s.m.
    • operación s.f.
    (ADM, EMP) s.f.
    • seña s.f.
    v.
    • hacer señas v.
    • indicar con la mano v.

    I 'məʊʃən
    1)
    a) u ( movement) movimiento m

    to be in motion — estar* en movimiento, moverse*

    to set o put something in motion — \<\<wheel\>\> poner* algo en movimiento; \<\<project/plan\>\> poner* algo en marcha

    it set in motion a whole chain of consequences — desencadenó toda una serie de consecuencias; (before n)

    b) c (action, gesture) gesto m, movimiento m

    to go through the motions: he went through the motions of interviewing them — los entrevistó por pura fórmula

    2)
    a) ( for vote) moción f

    to carry o pass a motion — aprobar* una moción

    the motion was rejected/defeated — se rechazó/no se aprobó la moción

    b) ( Law) petición f

    II
    ['mǝʊʃǝn]
    1. N
    1) (=movement) movimiento m

    to be in motion — (lit) estar en movimiento

    plans are already in motion for a new opera house — ya hay planes en marcha para la construcción de un nuevo teatro de la ópera

    to set in motion — [+ mechanism] poner en marcha

    the strike set in motion a chain of events which led to his overthrow — la huelga desencadenó una serie de acontecimientos que condujeron a su derrocamiento

    to go through the motions (of doing sth) —

    he was just going through the motions of living — estaba viviendo maquinalmente, vivía por inercia

    - set the wheels in motion
    perpetual 2., slow 5., time 3.
    2) (=gesture) gesto m, ademán m

    he made a chopping motion with his hand — hizo un gesto como si fuera a cortar algo con la mano, hizo un ademán de cortar algo con la mano

    3) (=proposal) moción f

    the motion was carried/defeated — la moción fue aprobada/rechazada

    to propose or (US) make a motion (that...) — presentar una moción (para que + subjun)

    to propose or (US) make a motion (to do sth) — presentar una moción (para hacer algo)

    4) (US) (Jur) petición f

    to file a motion (for sth/to do sth) — presentar una petición (para algo/para hacer algo)

    5) (Brit) frm (also: bowel motion) (=action) evacuación f; (=stool) deposición f

    to have or pass a motion — evacuar el vientre

    6) [of watch, clock] mecanismo m
    2.
    VT

    he motioned me to a chair/to sit down — con un gesto indicó que me sentara, hizo señas para que me sentara

    to motion sb in(side)/out(side) — señalar or indicar a algn con un gesto que entre/salga

    3.
    VI

    he motioned for the doors to be opened — hizo un gesto or hizo señas para que se abrieran las puertas

    to motion to sb to do sth — indicar a algn con un gesto que haga algo, hacer señas a algn para que haga algo

    4.
    CPD

    motion of censure N — (Parl) moción f de censura

    motion picture N — (esp US) película f

    motion picture camera N — (esp US) cámara f cinematográfica, cámara f de cine

    * * *

    I ['məʊʃən]
    1)
    a) u ( movement) movimiento m

    to be in motion — estar* en movimiento, moverse*

    to set o put something in motion — \<\<wheel\>\> poner* algo en movimiento; \<\<project/plan\>\> poner* algo en marcha

    it set in motion a whole chain of consequences — desencadenó toda una serie de consecuencias; (before n)

    b) c (action, gesture) gesto m, movimiento m

    to go through the motions: he went through the motions of interviewing them — los entrevistó por pura fórmula

    2)
    a) ( for vote) moción f

    to carry o pass a motion — aprobar* una moción

    the motion was rejected/defeated — se rechazó/no se aprobó la moción

    b) ( Law) petición f

    II

    English-spanish dictionary > motion

  • 12 community

    [kə'mju:nəti]
    plural - communities; noun
    1) (a group of people especially having the same religion or nationality and living in the same general area: the West Indian community in London.) skupnost
    2) (the public in general: He did it for the good of the community; ( also adjective) a community worker, a community centre.) skupnost
    * * *
    [kəmjú:niti]
    noun
    skupna last; občina; skupnost; država; občestvo

    English-Slovenian dictionary > community

  • 13 Victorian

    1. adjective 2. noun
    Viktorianer, der/Viktorianerin, die
    * * *
    [vik'to:riən] 1. adjective
    1) (of the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901): Victorian writers; Victorian households/furniture.) viktorianisch
    2) ((of an attitude towards morals etc) strict and conservative: a Victorian attitude to life.) viktorianisch
    2. noun
    (a person living in Queen Victoria's reign: The Victorians were great engineers and industrialists.) der/die Viktorianer(in)
    * * *
    Vic·to·rian
    [vɪkˈtɔ:riən]
    I. adj
    1. (era) viktorianisch
    the \Victorian stage das viktorianische Theater
    2. ( fig pej: prudish) prüde
    3. AUS (of or from Victoria) aus Viktoria nach n
    II. n Viktorianer(in) m(f); ( fig pej) prüder Mensch
    * * *
    [vIk'tɔːrɪən]
    1. n
    Viktorianer( in) m(f)
    2. adj
    viktorianisch; (fig) (sitten)streng
    * * *
    Victorian [vıkˈtɔːrıən; US auch -ˈtəʊ-]
    A adj
    1. Viktorianisch:
    Victorian Age ( oder Era, Period) Viktorianisches Zeitalter
    2. viktorianisch:
    b) streng konventionell, prüde
    B s Viktorianer(in)
    * * *
    1. adjective 2. noun
    Viktorianer, der/Viktorianerin, die

    English-german dictionary > Victorian

  • 14 write

    1. intransitive verb,
    wrote, written schreiben

    write to somebody/a firm — jemandem/an eine Firma schreiben

    2. transitive verb,
    wrote, written
    1) schreiben; ausschreiben [Scheck]

    the written language — die Schriftsprache

    be written into the contract — [ausdrücklich] im Vertrag stehen

    write somebody into/out of a serial — für jemanden eine Rolle in einer Serie schreiben/jemandem einen Abgang aus einer Serie verschaffen

    writ large — (fig.) im Großformat (fig.)

    2) (Amer./Commerc./coll.): (write letter to) anschreiben
    3) in pass. (fig.): (be apparent)

    guilt was written all over her face — die Schuld stand ihr ins Gesicht geschrieben

    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/83213/write_away">write away
    * * *
    past tense - wrote; verb
    1) (to draw (letters or other forms of script) on a surface, especially with a pen or pencil on paper: They wrote their names on a sheet of paper; The child has learned to read and write; Please write in ink.) schreiben
    2) (to compose the text of (a book, poem etc): She wrote a book on prehistoric monsters.) schreiben
    3) (to compose a letter (and send it): He has written a letter to me about this matter; I'll write you a long letter about my holiday; I wrote to you last week.) schreiben
    •
    - writer
    - writing
    - writings
    - written
    - writing-paper
    - write down
    - write out
    * * *
    <wrote, written or ( old) writ>
    [raɪt]
    I. vt
    1. (make letters)
    ▪ to \write sth etw schreiben
    he wrote the appointment in his calendar er trug die Verabredung in seinen Kalender ein
    to \write a letter to sb jdm einen Brief schreiben
    ▪ to \write sth etw ausstellen
    to \write sb a cheque [or a cheque to sb] jdm einen Scheck ausstellen [o ausschreiben]
    to \write a prescription/receipt ein Rezept/eine Quittung ausstellen
    to \write one's will sein Testament aufsetzen
    3. CAN, SA SCH
    to \write a test einen Test schreiben
    ▪ to \write sth etw schreiben
    ▪ to \write sb sth etw für jdn [o jdm etw] schreiben
    ▪ to \write to sb [that...] BRIT, AUS [or AM to \write sb [that...]] jdm schreiben[, dass...]
    to \write a book/song/thesis ein Buch/ein Lied/eine Doktorarbeit schreiben
    to \write sth in English/German/French etw auf Englisch/Deutsch/Französisch verfassen
    5. (state)
    ▪ to \write that... schreiben [o berichten], dass...
    6. (add)
    ▪ to \write sth into sth etw in etw akk einfügen
    to \write sth into a contract etw in einen Vertrag aufnehmen
    ▪ to \write sth to sth etw auf etw dat speichern
    to \write an insurance policy eine Versicherungspolice unterschreiben [o unterzeichnen
    9.
    ▶ to be nothing to \write home about nichts Weltbewegendes sein
    that was nothing to \write home about das hat uns nicht vom Hocker gerissen fam
    II. vi
    1. (make letters) schreiben
    to \write clearly/legibly deutlich/leserlich schreiben
    to know how/learn [how] to read and \write Lesen und Schreiben können/lernen
    2. (handwrite) mit der Hand schreiben
    3. (compose literature) schreiben
    ▪ to \write about [or on] sth über etw akk schreiben
    to \write for a living Schriftsteller(in) m(f) sein
    4. COMPUT schreiben, speichern, sichern
    * * *
    [raɪt] pret wrote or ( obs) writ [rɪt] ptp written or (obs) writ [rɪt]
    1. vt
    1) (ALSO COMPUT) schreiben; cheque, copy ausstellen; notes sich (dat) aufschreiben, sich (dat) machen; application form ausfüllen

    print your name, don't write it — schreiben Sie Ihren Namen in Druckschrift, nicht in Schreibschrift

    to write sth to disk —

    it is written that... (old) — es steht geschrieben, dass...

    writ( ten) large (fig) — verdeutlicht

    he had "policeman" written all over him — man sah ihm den Polizisten schon von Weitem an

    See:
    → shorthand
    2) (INSUR) policy abschließen
    3) CD, DVD brennen
    2. vi
    schreiben

    as I write... — während ich dies schreibe,...

    we write to each other —

    I wrote to him to come — ich habe ihm geschrieben, er solle kommen or dass er kommen solle

    I'll write for it at once — ich bestelle es sofort, ich fordere es gleich an

    * * *
    write [raıt] prät wrote [rəʊt], obs writ [rıt], pperf written [ˈrıtn], obs writ
    A v/t
    1. einen Brief etc schreiben
    2. auf-, niederschreiben, schriftlich niederlegen, aufzeichnen, notieren:
    write a term into a contract eine Bedingung in einen Vertrag aufnehmen;
    it is written that … BIBEL es steht geschrieben, dass …;
    it is written on ( oder all over) his face es steht ihm im Gesicht geschrieben;
    written in ( oder on) water fig in den Wind geschrieben, vergänglich
    3. a) einen Scheck etc ausschreiben, ausstellen:
    write sb a prescription MED jemandem ein Rezept ausschreiben oder ausstellen
    b) ein Formular etc ausfüllen
    4. Papier etc vollschreiben
    5. jemandem etwas schreiben, schriftlich mitteilen:
    write sb US jemandem schreiben, an jemanden schreiben, jemanden anschreiben
    6. schreiben:
    a) ein Buch etc verfassen:
    write poetry dichten, Gedichte schreiben
    b) eine Sinfonie etc komponieren:
    write the music for a play die Musik zu einem (Theater)Stück schreiben;
    “written by …” ( RADIO, TV) „Drehbuch: …“
    7. schreiben über (akk):
    she is writing her life sie schreibt ihre Lebensgeschichte
    8. write o.s. sich bezeichnen als ( a duke, etc Herzog etc)
    B v/i
    1. schreiben
    2. schreiben, schriftstellern
    3. schreiben, schriftliche Mitteilung machen:
    write to sb jemandem schreiben, an jemanden schreiben, jemanden anschreiben;
    write home nach Hause schreiben;
    write to ask schriftlich anfragen;
    write ( away oder off) for sth etwas anfordern; → home C 1
    * * *
    1. intransitive verb,
    wrote, written schreiben

    write to somebody/a firm — jemandem/an eine Firma schreiben

    2. transitive verb,
    wrote, written
    1) schreiben; ausschreiben [Scheck]

    be written into the contract — [ausdrücklich] im Vertrag stehen

    write somebody into/out of a serial — für jemanden eine Rolle in einer Serie schreiben/jemandem einen Abgang aus einer Serie verschaffen

    writ large — (fig.) im Großformat (fig.)

    2) (Amer./Commerc./coll.): (write letter to) anschreiben
    3) in pass. (fig.): (be apparent)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (in) shorthand expr.
    stenographieren v. (to) v.
    anschreiben v. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: wrote, written)
    = schreiben v.
    verfassen v.

    English-german dictionary > write

  • 15 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 16 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

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  • Living Theatre —   [ lɪvɪȖ θɪətə; englisch »lebendes Theater«], von J. Beck und Judith Malina (Schüler von E. Piscators »Dramatic Workshop«) 1947 in New York gegründetes Theaterkollektiv, das ab 1951 mit neuen Formen und Inhalten einen radikalen… …   Universal-Lexikon

  • Living Valencia Theater — (Валенсия,Испания) Категория отеля: Адрес: Santa Eulalia, 3, Сьютат Белла …   Каталог отелей

  • Living With The Land — ou Listen to the Land (ancien nom) est une attraction du pavillon The Land du parc Epcot de Walt Disney World Resort. C est une croisière composée de deux parties, l une est un parcours scénique et l autre dans des serres. L attraction s… …   Wikipédia en Français

  • Living with the land — ou Listen to the Land (ancien nom) est une attraction du pavillon The Land du parc Epcot de Walt Disney World Resort. C est une croisière composée de deux parties, l une est un parcours scénique et l autre dans des serres. L attraction s… …   Wikipédia en Français

  • Theater: Die Moderne im Spiegel der Theaterkonzepte —   »Theaterreform um 1900« diese Bewegung markiert eine grundlegende Wende in der europäischen Theaterpraxis und theorie. Sie läutete die Konstituierung des modernen Theaters zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts ein, auch wenn sich Ansätze zur… …   Universal-Lexikon

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